■i<A\ 


\9 


OP  THE 

U^jiVEKGIT7  of  ILLIfiGIS. 


1892. 


Form  io8B  — 1-5-92-2,000. 


'T  lie 


DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE 


Isolated  Country  Houses 


By  WM.  PAUL  6ERHARD,  C.  E. 

Consulting  Engineer  for  Sanitary  Work,  36  PTnion  Square,  East, 

New  York  City. 


PULISHED  BY 


IOWA  STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH. 


OF  THE 

MVERGITVofILM 


THE  DISPOSAL  OF  SEWAGE. 

— OP— 

ISOLATED  COUNTRY  HOUSES.* 


BY  WM.  PAUL  GERHARD,  C.  E.,  CONSULTING  ENGINEER  FOR  SANITARY 
WORKS,  NEW  YORK  CITY. 


A serious  and  all-important  problem  presents  itself  to  all  builders 
or  occupiers  of  suburban  and  country  residences,  not  located  within 
reach  of  sewers.  I refer  to  the  question:  What  method  should  be 
adopted  by  architects  or  householders  to  get  rid  of  the  liquid 
wastes  from  the  household  in  a manner  calculated  to  avoid  at  once 
all  nuisance  to  sight  or  smell;  all  danger  to  health  arising  from  the 
pollution  of  the  soil,  the  water  and  the  air;  and  all  causes  of  con- 
tamination of  water-courses,  whether  flowing  streams,  or  ponds, 
lakes,  estuaries  and  harbors?  The  problem  is  not  at  all  a novel  one, 
for  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago  Hippocrates  discussed  the  same 
subject  of  the  relation  existing  between  health  and  soil,  air  and 
water,  yet,  if  we  contemplate,  for  a moment,  the  numberless  filth- 
reeking  and  disease-breeding  privies  and  barbarous  leaching  cess- 
pools which  we  still  encounter  everywhere,  and  which  apparently 
are  accepted  as  necessary  adjuncts  to  farm  houses,  summer  resi- 
dences, mechanics’  dwellings,  etc.,  we  hope  to  be  considered  justi- 
fied in  again  calling  attention  to  the  evil  results  of  improper 
methods  of  sewage  disposal,  and  in  discussing  briefly  the  proper 
remedies. 


♦Copy right  by  William  Paul  Gerhard,  188(5.  All  rights  reserved. 

Note.— The  cuts  illustrating  this  paper  has  been  kindly  loaned  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Com- 
stock and  the  D,  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  vTio  publish  Mr.  Gerhard’s  books  on  drainage  and 
plumbing. 


— 4 — 


Let  us  be^in  with  a consideration  of  the  smaller  farm  houses,, 
mechanics’  cottages  and  laborers’  dwellings.  The  crude  methods 
usually  adopted  to  get  rid  of  all  filth  from  these  are  the  discharge 
of  the  liquids  into  some  open  ditch,  or  into  some  neighboring 
water-course,  brook  or  pond,  and  the  accumulation  of  the  excreta 
in  privy  vaults.  In  other  cases,  slops  are  retained  on  the  premises 
by  pouring  them  directly  in  front  of  the  kitchen  window  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  which  is  thus  kept  continuously  wet,  and 
quickly  becomes  saturated  with  filth,  or  else  the  liquid  sewage  is 
stored  in  leaching  cesspools  or  poured  into  disused  wells.  It 
seems  unnecessary  to  explain  at  length  the  disadvantages  and  dan- 
gers of  privies,  vaults  and  stagnant  pools  of  slops,  from  a health- 
point  of  view.  The  objections  against  them  are  well  recognized, 
and  hence  such  devices  are  now  utterly  condemned  by  all  sanitari- 
ans as  relics  of  primitive  stages  of  civilization: 

The  proper  disposal  of  the  slop-water  of  such  small  houses  is  so 
easily  acccomplished  wherever,  as  is  almost  always  the  case,  a 
small  vegetable  garden,  or  lawn,  or  grapevine  trellis,  or  an  apple 
orchard  adjoin  the  house,  as  to  make  us  wonder  why  better  meth- 
ods than  those  indicated  above  are  adopted  as  yet  in  comparatively 
rare  instances.  In  all  such  cases  the  sewage  may,  with  advantage,, 
be  used  to  feed  plants  and  fruit  trees,  or  to  irrigate  the  soil.  The 
ruling  principle  should  be  to  keep  solid  and  liquid  waste  matters, 
as  much  as  possible,  apart,  for  this  will  facilitate  the  disposal  of 
both.  The  kitchen- vvater,  soap-suds  from  washing,  chamber-slops, 
urine,  and  other  fouled  water,  are  easily  disposed  of  by  a daily  dis- 
tribution in  the  garden,  either  by  irrigation,  or  by  sub-surface  irri- 
gation. The  slop-water  should  be  collected  every  day  in  a tight 
tank  and  carried  by  hand,  or  carted  in  a wheelbarrow,  to  the  gar- 
den, and  there  it  should  be  used  for  watering  plants,  shrubbery  and 
fruit  trees,  or  for  the  cultivation  of  garden  vegetables.  Instead  of 
by  irrigation  on  the  surface,  the  slop-water  may  be  discharged  into 
one  or  more  lines  of  absorption  drains,  laid  with  open  joints  under 
the  surface.  For  the  smallest  cottage  fifty  feet  of  absorption  tiles 
are  sufficient,  and  in  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  household  sew- 
age increases  the  amount  of  tiles  should  be  increased.  The  prin- 
cipal points  of  importance  are  that  the  sewage  be  applied  to  the 
soil  while  fresh  and  before  decomposition  sets  in;  that  it  should  be 
applied  in  moderate  quantities  only,  to  prevent  over  saturation  of 
the  soil;  that  the  sewage  be  applied  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
soil,  within  reach  of  the  oxidizing  influence  of  the  air  and  of  the 


— 5 — 


r-x 


bacteria  in  the  soil,  and,  finally,  that  the  application  be  made  inter- 
mittent, so  as  to  give  the  soil,  after  each  discharge,  a chance  to 

breathe,  as  it 
were,  and  to  al- 
low the  finer 
solid  particles  to 
be  oxidized  and 
destroyed.  An 

•easy  method  of  accomplishing  the  disposal  of  slop-water,  where 
the  house  contains  no  plumbing  fixtures,  is  to  have  near  the  house 

a hopper  or  re- 
ceiver of  wood  or 
rustless  iron,  or, 
better,  of  earthen- 
ware, and  pro- 
vided with  a 
strainer  and  a 
proper  cover. 
From  this  a pipe 
may  be  carried 
underground  t o 
the  absorption 
tiles,  while  the 
house  sewage  may 
b e carried  and 
discharged  into 
t h e h o pper  by 
means  of  a pail, 
thus  sending  rap- 
idly a full  volume 
of  slops  at  proper 
intervals  into  the 
absorption  tiles. 
(See  Fig.  1.) 

The  solid  excre- 
ments are  taken 
care  of  in  the  case 
of  small  cottages 
quite  as  readily 
and  inoffensively 

by  adopting  either  an  earth-  or  an  ash-closet,  in  place  of  the 
usual  privy,  still  so  much  en  vogue^  although  long  ago  unanimously 


— 6 — 


condemned  by  practical  sanitarians.  In  the  application  of  the 
dry-earth  system,  sufficient  dried  earth,  garden  loam,  or  some- 
times coal  ashes  are  mixed  with  the  excreta  to  absorb  all  foul- 
ness, to  keep  down  all  odor,  and  to  prevent  putrefaction. 
Such  earth-closets  work  quite  satisfactorily  with  very  little  atten- 
tion, and  form  a simple  and  cleanly  substitute  for  the  privy  nui- 
sance. They  are  manufactured  in  various  grades,  and  with 
more  or  less  complicated  mechanism.  As  a rule  the  simpler  the 
arrangement,  the  better.  (See  Fig.  2.)  If  placed  out  of  doors, 
the  earth-closet  should  not  be  located  too  far  from  the  house.  The 
outer  structure  should  be  strong  and  substantial,  with  a good  roof 
to  protect  it  against  rain  or  dampness.  It  should  be  well  lighted, 
well  ventilated,  not  too  much  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
preferably  plastered  on  the  inside  as  a protection  in  cold  weather.  A 
carefully  kept  dry  walk  should  lead  to  it  from  the  house,  and  it  is  better 
to  have  the  walk  and  the  closet  shed  screened  from  view  and  from  the 
prevailing  winds.  The  excreta  should  be  received  in  a movable,  well 
tarred  wooden  box,  or  else  in  a galvanized  iron  pail,  not  too  large,  and 
of  such  shape  and  construction  that  it  can  easily  be  handled.  The  box 
or  pail  should  fit  close  up  under  the  seat,  and  each  time  the  closet  is 
used,  ashes  or  dry  earth  should  be  used  as  deodorizers,  being 
thrown  down  either  by  a hand-scoop  or  by  mechanical  apparatus. 
There  can  be  scarcely  any  doubt  about  the  economy,  efficiency,  and 
convenience  of  such  apparatus  in  the  case  of  small  houses.  The 
property  of  dry  earth,  of  not  only  deodorizing,  but  also  of  absorb- 
ing and  rendering  harmless  excreta  of  animals  has  long  been  well 
known.  Some  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  cases  where  the 
earth  was  kept  too  damp.  According  to  recent  observations  a much 
smaller  quantity  of  earth  is  required  for  earth-closets,  if  the  separ- 
ation of  the  liquids  and  solids  is  at  once  effected.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  intercepting  the  urine  under  the  seat,  and  remov- 
ing it  by  a waste  pipe.  The  closet  is  thereby  more  easily  kept  free 
from  smell,  and  if  properly  used  and  well  taken  care  of,  it  can  be 
located  in  an  extension  of  a dwelling  without  becoming  a nuisance. 
The  dry-earth  manure  ought  to  be  removed  at  frequent  intervals, 
and  in  summer  time  it  can  be  used  and  dug  under  the  soil  in  the  gar- 
den  attached  to  the  cottage.  In  winter  time  it  may  be  dried  in  an 
outhouse  and  can  then  be  applied  over  and  over  again.  Ashes  are- 
sometimes  used  in  place  of  earth,  or  else  finely  powdered  charcoal, 
which  latter  is  a well  known  deodorizer.  The  latter  can  be  applied 
with  a mechanism  similar  to  the  one  used  in  earth-closets,  and  it  is 
claimed  that  only  about  one-fourth  the  quantity  will  be  needed.  As 


< 


charcoal  is  rather  expensive  this  is  an  important  consideration. 
Some  also  claim  that  removal  need  not  be  so  frequent  in  the  case 
of  charcoal  closets,  but  this  is,  at  best,  a doubtful  advantage. 

In  cottages,  or  suburban  residences  of  somewhat  more  preten- 
sion, the  earth-closet  is  sometimes  located,  for  convenience’s  sake, 
in  an  extension  of  the  cottage,  and  it  then 
usually  becomes  desirable  to  have  also  a 
somewhat  more  convenient  method  of  dis- 
posal of  the  slop-water,  which  would  avoid 
exposure  of  the  housewife  or  servant  to  the 
inclemencies  of  the  weather.  This  may  be 
secured  by  arranging  a properly  ventilated 
and  trapped  waste-pipe  — a pipe  two  inches  in 
diameter  is  plenty  large  enough  — to  carry  the 
waste  from  the  kitchen  sink,  the  laundry-tub, 
and  — wherever  this  is  provided  for  — from  the 
bath-tub,  into  a small  receiving  tank,  located 
outside  of  the  house,  and  placed  below  the 
depth  to  which  frost  usually  penetrates.  This 
tank  may  be  a plain  wooden  box,  or  an 
earthen  Or  iron  tank,  or  finally  a tank  built  of 
brick  work.  (Fig.  3.)  It  may  be  emptied  in 
the  plainest  kind  of  an  arangement  by  hand, 
or  else  it  may  be  discharged  by  an  automatic 
device,  such  as  a siphon,  a tumbler  tank,  or 
other  mechanical  appliance.  It  may  become 
useful,  even  in  the  case  of  small  houses,  to 
build  some  sort  of  a grease-trap  to  prevent 
the  grease  from  being  discharged  and  finally 
clogging  the  small  absorption  pipes.  It  is, 
of  course,  assumed  that  the  general  topog- 
raphy of  the  lot  is  favorable  to  such  an 
arrangement,  in  other  words,  that  there  is 
not  a slope  from  the  garden,  or  absorption 
field,  toward  the  house,  in  which  case  dis- 
posal by  gravity  would  become  impossible. 

If  the  earth-closet  is  placed  inside  of  a dwell- 
ing the  same  precautions  should  be  observed  which  are  taken  in 
the  case  of  water-closets.  The  ventilation  of  the  apartment  is  an 
important  matter,  and  should  receive  careful  attention.  As  a rule, 
it  is  better  to  locate  an  earth-closet  in  an  isolated  or  detached  part 
of  the  cottage.  While  an  earth-closet  is  inferior  to  the  best  water 


Fig.  3. 


— 8 — 


closet,  I have  no  hesitation  in  pronouncing  it,  if  well  taken  care  of, 
superior  to  many  water-closets  as  usually  arranged  and  kept. 

The  question  whether  a farm  house  or  laborer’s  small  cottage 
should  be  provided  at  all  with  plumbing  work,  and  above  all, 
whether  it  is  wise  to  have  a water-closet  indoors,  which  in  turn 
requires  a more  or  less  complicated  system  of  service  pipes  and  a 
service  cistern,  is,  more  than  anything  else,  one  of  convenience 
and  comfort.  The  annoyance  and  cost  of  frequent  repairs,  and  the 
diflSculty  in  country  districts  of  getting  a mechanic  to  fix  such 
apparatus  when  out  of  order,  the  danger  of  exposed  pipes  and 
traps  freezing  in  mid-winter,  or  sometimes  the  lack  of  an  abund- 
ance of  water  for  flushing,  or  the  necessity  of  raising  it  by  hand 
pumping — all  these  are  considerations  which  may  deter  many  from 
putting  any  plumbing  work  into  their  homes.  It  is  undoubtedly 
much  easier  and  less  troublesome  to  deal  with  the  sewage  problem 
of  cottages,  if  the  strict  separation  of  solids  and  liquids  is  adhered 
to.  A water-closet  in  a house  not  only  requires  a larger  discharge 
pipe  than  the  two-inch  waste  pipe  for  slop-water,  but  it  complicates 
at  once  the  whole  arrangement.  That  it  can  be  made  quite  safe, 
perfectly  inodorous  and  inoffensive,  it  is  not  necessary  for  me  here 
to  assert.  Those  who  have  followed  the  recent  improvements  in 
house  drainage  and  plumbing  work  will  know  that  it  is  possible  to 
select  a good  water-closet  and  fit  it  up  in  such  a way  as  to  be  in  all 
respects  satisfactory..];  In  points  of  cleanliness  I think  it  certainly 
stands  ahead  of  any  other  device.  Its  advantages  are  many,  but 
its  disadvantages,  under  certain  conditions,  ought  to  be  overlooked. 
If  a water-closet  is  used  in  a cottage,  the  solids  should  not  enter  the 
outside  tank  for  slop-water,  for  they  would  soon  clog  the  siphon  or 
the  absorption  tiles,  but  they  should  be  intercepted  in  a settling 
chamber  and  frequently  removed.  How  this  may  be  done  will  be 
explained  later  on,  when  detailed  reference  is  made  to  larger 
country  houses. 


The  proper  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  larger  country  or  suburban 
residences,  fitted  up  with  all  the  usual  plumbing  appliances,  is 
often,  indeed,  in  most  cases,  a much  more  puzzling  problem.  What 
shall  be  done  with  the  more  or  less  large  daily  volume  of  sewage 
of  detached  and  isolated  country  houses,  without  creating  a nui- 
sance either  on  one’s  own  premises  or  on  those  of  the  neighbors? 
This  is  a question  of  much  interest  to  thousands  of  householders 


t See  the  author’s  various  books  on  Plumbing  and  House  Drainage. 


— 9 — 


who  live  in  the  better  class  of  country  or  suburban  houses,  and  who 
are  often  compelled  to  meet  the  difficulties  as  best  they  can.  The 
problem  has  lon^  engaged  the  attention  of  civil  engineers,  who 
make  a specialty  of  sanitary  drainage,  and  while  it  is  possible  that 
the  best  solution  has  not  yet  been  discovered,  there  are  several 
methods  which  are  in  more  or  less  successful  use.  Whatever 
method  of  disposal  of  the,  sewage  maybe  adopted,  it  is  obvious 
that  one  must  decide  about  it  before  arranging  the  house  drainage 
system  [inside  of  a house,  for  the  best  arrangement  of  the  main 
drain  and  its  branches  in  the  cellar  or  basement  of  a house  will 
depend  upon  the  direction  in  which  the  sewage  tank  will  be  erected, 
or  upon  the  location  of  the  final  outlet.  Generally  speaking,  an 
isolated  country  house,  not  in  reach  of  sewers,  may  dispose  of  its 
sewage  by  one  or  the  other  of  the  following  methods: 

1.  It  may  discharge  its  sewage  into  an  open  surface  ditch  or 
gutter,  removing  everything  from  the  house,  and  carrying  the 
water  into  a more  or  less  distant  sink-hole,  or  to  some  low  spot 
where  the  sewage  is  allowed  to  soak  away  and  to  evaporate  slowly. 
This  method,  based  on  the  principle  of  “out  of  sight,  out  of 
mind,”  is  a very  primitive  one,  and  one  that  has  not  a single  fea- 
ture of  merit.  As  a rule,  such  a system  becomes  highly  offensive 
to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  house. 

2.  The  house  drain  may  empty  the  sewage  into  a large  open  or 
leaching  cesspool,  allowing  the  liquids  to  ooze  away  through  under- 
ground porous  strata,  or  by  fissures  and  cracks  in  the  rock.  This, 
although  a very  common  method  of  disposal,  is  in  reality  one  very 
dangerous  to  health,  particularly  so  where  the  wacer  supply  is 
local,  being  derived  from  a well,  a cistern,  or  a spring  on  the 
premises.  It  is  a method  utterly  to  be  condemned  as  both  unsafe 
and  nasty. 

The  most  primitive  form  of  cesspool  is  a hole  dug  in  the  ground, 
into  which  all  the  sewage  is  continually  poured,  the  result  expected 
being  that  at  least  the  liquids  will  soak  away  through  unknown 
under-ground  recesses  and  disappear,  Occasionally  the  sides  of 
such  a cesspool  are  lined  with  loose  stones,  laid  dry,  the  liquid 
sewage  escaping  at  the  numerous  open  joints  into  the  surrounding 
soil,  while  more  or  less  of  the  solid  matter  and  grease  are  retained 
in  the  cesspool,  undergoing  at  once  a very  dangerous  process  of 
decomposition, in  the  presence  of  moisture,  heat  and  darkness — all 
conditions  known  to  be  particularly  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
dangerous  bacteria  or  germs  of  disease.  In  dealing  with  sewage,  a 
cardinal  principle  always  to  be  observed  is  to  avoid  all  stagnation. 


/ 


In  the  leachinor  cesspool  we  have  the  worst  possible  example  of 
stagnation  and  of  accumulation  of  putrefying  tilth  on  our  premises. 
The  great  objection  to  a leaching  cesspool  is  not  only  that  it  con- 
stitutes in-  itself  an  abominable  nuisance,  comparable  to  a powder 
magazine,  wliich  merely  needs  a single  spark  to  create  destruction, 
but  that  it  unavoidably  and  invariably  pollutes  the  sub-soil  in  the 
neighborhood  of  dwellings,  contaminates  the  water-supply,  and 
renders  the  air  which  we  breathe  obnoxious  by  its  exhalations.  If 
we  consider  for  a moment  that  such  isolated  country  dwellings  and 
farm  houses, which  are  not  in  reach  of  sewers,  also  do  not  usually 
enjoy  the  privilege  of  a public  water-supply,  but  must  derive  their 
potable  water  from  wells,  cisterns  or  springs  on  the  premises,  the  full 
extent  of  the  evil  and  force  of  our  objections  become  more  appar- 
ent. It  is,  indeed,  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  local  water- 
supply  of  isolated  dwellings  be  kept  as  clear  and  free  from  con- 
tamination as  possible;. but  even  supposing  that  water  is  introduced 
from  a street  or  public  supply,  the  enormous  evils  of  soil  pollution 
and  air  contamination  remain.  Two  thousand  years  ago  an  old 
philosopher,  Hippocrates,  preached  a sanitary  formula,  which  has 
not  been  improved  up  to  the  present  day.  Kecognizing  the  dan- 
gers to  health  resulting  from  neglect  of  sanitary  precautions,  he 
expressed  his  advice  in  the  words:  ‘‘Pure  air,  pure  water  and  pure 
soil.”  What,  then,  shall  we  say  if  some  of  our  best  architects  of 
the  present  day  persist  in  suggesting  as  the  most  convenient  and 
ready  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  sewage  of  a country  house  the 
adoption  of  a leaching  cesspool? 

I admit  that  in  sparsely  populated  country  districts,  a leaching 
cesspool,  located  at  a great  distance  from,  and  at  a lower  level  than 
the  house,  may  sometimes  be  used  without  causing  any  harm  to 
the  occupants  of  the  house.  As  a matter  of  principle,  however, 
sanitary  science  must  condemn  such  devices  in  every  case.  If 
the  principle  is  true  that  we  should  speedily  return  all  organic  dirt 
and  tilth  to  the  earth,  it  should  be  carried  out  in  such  manner  that 
the  soil  may  accomplish  the  complete  destruction  of  organic  tilth. 
We  shall  see,  further  on,  that  this  can  be  done  only  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  and  by  application  of  the  sewage  before  it  becomes 
putrid. 

In  pouring  our  sewage  into  leaching  cesspools,  on  the  contrar}^, 
we  bury  all  matter  deep  in  the  ground,  remote  from  the  cleansing, 
oxidizing  effects  of  the  atmosphere,  of  the  purifying  action  of 
plant  life,  and  of  the  help  which  is  rendered  by  some  of  the  low 


—11— 


organisms,  or  so-called  bacteria,  in  the  process  of  nitrification  and 
destruction  of  organic  matter. 

Then,  again,  another  important  consideration  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of,  namely:  that  often  where  a leaching  cesspool  can  not  work 
any  danger  to  our  own  house,  our  own  well,  or  spring,  it  may  pol- 
lute shallow  or  deep  wells  belonging  to  adjoining  estates.  It  is, 
therefore,  evident  that  as  habitations  are  grouped  closely  together, 
leaching  cesspools  become  more  and  more  inadmissible.  If  we  are 
selfish  enough  to  locate  such  a cesspool  in  the  remotest  and  lowest 
corner  of  our  own  garden,  entirely  forgetful  of  its  immediate  prox- 
imity to  our  neighbor’s  drinking-water  well,  it  is  but  perfectly 
proper  that  our  health  authorities  should  remind  us  that  we  have- 
some  obligations  to  fulfill  toward  our  neiglibors. 

Occasionally  such  cesspools  are  built  with  sides  cemented  up, 
leaving  only  the  bottom  loose  for  the  escape  of  sewage,  or  in  cases 
where  they  are  originally  open  on  the  sides,  the  pores  soon  clog, 
and  the  removal  of  the  liquid  then  takes  place  in  a still  more 
imperfect  manner. 

3.  The  house  drain  may  deliver  the  sewage  into  a tightly  built 
cesspool,  provided  with  an  overflow  pipe  carried  into  some  ditch 
or  water-course.  Such  an  arrangement  may  be  considered  a direct 
outcome  of  the  leaching  cesspool.  Desiring  to  avoid  the  pollution 
of  the  soil,  the  architect  or  owner  built  the  cesspool  with  tight  sides 
and  bottom,  but  finding  that  it  would  rapidly  fill  up,  and  that  fre- 
quent pumping  out  would  be  expensive,  an  overflow  was  taken 
from  the  cesspools  and  the  surplus  of  liquid  sewage  carried  away. 
While  such  a tight  cesspool  with  overflow  located  far  away  from  the 
house,  and  with  the  overflow  carried  into  some  large  volume  of 
rapidly  flowing  water,  may  be  unobjectionable  where  but  little 
water  is  used  in  a house,  tlie  arrangement  constitutes  in  the  case  of 
larger  houses  a fearful  nuisance,  for  the  sewage  is  already  putrid 
when  removed. 

4.  The  alternative  is  to  empty  the  sewage  into  a cesspool  built 
absolutely  tight  and  without  overflow.  Such  a cesspool  avoids  the 
pollution  of  the  water-supply,  and  also  the  contamination  of  the 
sub-soil.  It  is,  therefore,  an  arrangement  much  to  be  preferred  to 
a leaching  cesspool,  and  one  which  is  permissible  under 
certain  circumstances.  Perhaps  I should  ratlier  call  it  a sometimes 
necessary  evil,  for  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  involves  a 
long  temporary  storage  of  sewage,  and  does  not  effect  its  imme- 
diate or  nearly  immediate  disposal.  Hence  it  can  not  be  approved 


—12— 

from  a sanitary  point  of  view,  and  its  objections  are  many  and 
serious  ones.  Since  it  is  the  object  of  all  good  drainage  to  get  rid 
of  filth  from  the  premises  at  once,  or  else  to  dispose  of  it  on  the 
premises  while  fresh,  so  as  to  be  completely  taken  up  by  vegeta- 
tion and  purified  by  the  soil,  it  is  evident  that  a vast  receptacle  of 
accumulated  filth  can  not  be  considered  a sanitary  device.  The 
stagnated  sewage  within  the  walls  of  the  cesspool  undergoes  a pro- 
cess of  decomposition,  and  the  gases  generated  are  extremely 
unwholesome,  often  causing,  by  improper  escape,  or  by  entrance 
into  houses  through  the  sewer  pipes,  a nuisance.  To  ventilate  such 
a cesspool  successfully  is  rather  a difficult,  and  often  an  impossible 
matter. 

To  overcome  some  of  these  objections,  it  is  the  habit  of  some 
architects  to  use  two  cesspools  for  a single  house,  delivering  into 
the  one  all  water-closet  wastes,  while  the  other  is  intended  for 
the  reception  of  kitchen-  and  laundry-water.  I do  not  approve  of 
such  an  arrangement.  Practically,  it  is  found  that  after  awhile  both 
cesspools  do  not  differ  materially  as  regards  the  degree  of  putre- 
faction and  offensiveness  of  their  contents;  nor  can  I see  any  sense 
in  duplicating  or  multiplying  the  dangers  which  adhere  to  all 
cesspool  arrangements. 

There  are,  however,  some  cases  where  no  good  feasible  way  of 
dealing  with  sewage  may  be  devised  other  than  to  run  it  into  a 

tight  cess- 
pool. I n 
that  case, 
the  follow- 
ing precau- 
tions are  to 
be  observ- 
ed : The 
cesspool 
should  b e 
located  a s 
far  away 
from  the 
house  as 
possible, 

TIGHT  CESSPOOL  and  til  ere 

Fis.  4.  s h o u 1 d be 

proper  disconnection  between  the  house  and  the  cesspool.  The 
latter  should  be  built  in  two  compartments,  the  first  of  which  con- 
stitutes an  intercepting  chamber  for  the  solids,  while  the  second 


OF  THE 

UNlvEr^SlTY  of  ILLI 


!S. 


—13— 

and  larger  chamber  will  receive  the  liquids.  Both  cliambers  should 
be  built  thoroughly  tight,  of  hard-burned  brick,  laid  in  hydraulic 
cement,  preferably  of  a circular  shape,  and  the  walls  should  be  well 
rendered  inside  and  outside  with  Portland  cement.  Each  chamber 
should  be  arched  over  and  topped  with  a manhole,  covered  with  a 
tight  iron  cover.  ^ (See  Fig.  4).  The  cesspool  should  be  as  well 
ventilated  as  it  is  possible  to  do,  and  it  should  be  emptied,  cleaned 
and  disinfected  at  frequent  intervals.  The  separation  of  the  liquid 
from  the  solid  matter  facilitates  much  the  disposal  of  both.  The 
liquids  may  be  bailed,  or  better,  pumped  out,  and  used  to  sprinkle 
and  irrigate  the  lawn,  or  kitchen  garden,  shrubbery,  vine  trellis  or 
apple  orchard.  The  solids, should  be  removed  and  dug  as  fertilizers 
under  the  soil.  The  oftener  this  is  done  the  better,  and  the  less 
offense  will  be  caused  by  the  application  of  sewage  to  land. 

Some  objections  to  the  cesspool  always  remain.  If  it  is  built,  as 
it  should  be,  absolittely  tight,  and  of  moderate  size  only,  to  avoid 
the  retention  of  too  large  a volume  of  sewage,  then  the  necessity 
of  frequent  pumping  arises,  and  with  it  the  annoyance  of  constant 
attention  and  of  manual  labor.  If  we  enlarge  the  dimensions  of 
the  cesspool  to  avoid  the  frequency  of  pumping  out,  we  increase 
the  dangers  always  resulting  from  stagnant  sewage,  and  create,  as 
it  were,  a large  gasometer  for  noxious  gases. 

5.  If  a stream  of  running  water,  either  a brook,  river,  canal  or 
tidal  estuary  is  available,  at  not  too  great  a distance,  a single  hous.e 
may  sometimes  discharge  its  sewage  into  it,  trusting  to  the  dilution 
of  the  sewage  and  to  the  self- purification  of  the  stream  to  render 
the  sewage  innocuous.  This  method,  simple  and  convenient  as  it 
may  appear,  can  not  be  regarded  as  permissible  in  all  cases.  It  is 
a method  which,  especially  if  the  current  is  not  rapid,  and  the  vol- 
ume of  water  in  the  stream  not  large,  may  cause  serious  annoy- 
ance and  offense,  and  hence  must  be  condemned  as  crude  and 
imperfect ; for,  by  pouring  the  filth  into  the  nearest  water-course, 
we  simply  remove  the  evil  from  one  place  to  another,  without 
attempting  to  abate  the  nuisance.  Again,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered, that  what  may  be  feasible  and  unobjectionable  for  a single 
house,  is  not  practicable  in  the  case  of  a number  of  adjoining  iso- 
lated country  houses.  The  pollution  of  creeks,  rivers  and  streams 
must  be  avoided,  especially  of  those  water-courses  serving  as  a 
source  of  supply  of  potable  water  for  villages  and  towns  located 
along  the  banks  of  these  streams,  and  from  which  canal  boats  or 
river  craft  draw  their  drinking  and  cooking  water,  Biparian 


—14— 


•dwellers  always  suffer  by  direct  discharge  of  unpurified  sewage 
into  water-courses.  The-  watering  of  cattle,  and  washing  and 
bathing  in  the  river  are  thereby  often  rendered  impossible;  while 
more  or  less  damage  is  done  to  fish  culture,  particularly  where  the 
sewage  is  discharged  in  a putrid  condition.  While  it  is  a well  known 
fact  that  some  kinds  of  fish  feed  on  fresh  sewage  matter,  others, 
particularly  salmon  and  trout,  appear  to  be  very  delicate,  and 
usually  suffer  from  pollution  of  streams. 

* Channels  with  tidal  flow,  finally,  should  not  receive  sewage,  for 
much  of  the  solid  matter  discharged  into  them  will  repeatedly  float 
up  and  down  with  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide,  instead  of  being  at 
once  and  forever  removed.  Offensive  odors  pervade  the  air,  par- 
ticularly in  the  vicinity  of  the  sewer  outfall,  the  banks  will  become 
defiled,  the  river  beds  silt  up,  and  the  channels  gradually  become 
obstructed. 

6.  Houses  located  at  or  near  the  seashore  have,  sometimes,  no 
other  available  outlet  for  the  discharge  of  their  sewage  than  the 
ocean  ; but,  although  at  first  blush  a ready  means  of  getting  rid  of 
sewage,  such  a discharge  is  seldom  permissible.  Experience  has 
demonstrated  the  unpleasant  fact  that  floating  sewage  matter,  dis- 
charged into  the  sea,  may  return  to  the  shore  with  the  tide,  or 
through  the  action  of  eddies,  currents,  winds  and  waves.  The 
sandy  beaches  become  polluted,  and  the  damage  inflicted  may 
seriously  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  beach  for  bathing  or  recrea- 
tion purposes.  The  direct  discharge  into  the  sea  is  only  prac- 
ticable where  the  sewage  outfall  from  houses  on  the  cliffs  or  near 
the  beach  is  carried  far  out  into  deep  water,  and  all  sewage  matter 
carried  away  by  some  strong  currents  setting  in  at  right  angles  to 
the  sewage  outfall,  or  about  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  beach. 

7.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  in  the  majority  of  instances, 
house  sewage  can  not  be  directly  admitted  into  water-courses  or 
streams  of  any  kind,  nor  into  the  sea,  without  creating  a nuisance 
to  sight,  smell,  or  danger  to  health.  So  far  as  practicable  it  should 
first  hQ purified  by  removing  the  suspended  impurities,  and  at 
least  a part  of  the  matters  in  solution.  The  purification  may  be 
effected  by  various  methods,  such  as  artificial  filtration,  chemical 
treatment,  or  by  the  application  of  sewage  to  land.  After  being 
purified  by  mechanical  or  chemical  processes,  sewage  can  some- 
times be  admitted  directly  into  streams,  in  other  cases,  however, 
it  becomes  desirable  that  it  be  further  purified  or  utilized  on  land. 

I shall  not  stop  to  consider  the  question  of  artificial  filter-beds, 
for,  to  my  knowledge,  such  a system  has  never  been  used  in  the 


« 


—15— 


United  States,  in  connection  with  the  sewage  from  houses.  I desire 
only  to  refer  to  a very  ingenious  mechanical  filter,  invented  in 
England,  and  recently  introduced  into  this*  country.  It  is  known 
as  the  Farquhar-Oldham  filter.  The  chief  characteristic  of  this 
machine  is  the  revolving  cutter,  which  is  so  arranged  that  when- 
ever the  surface  of  the  filtering  medium  clogs  up  with  sewage 
sludge,  it  can  be  removed  by  said  cutter  in  a few  moments,  where- 
by practically  a new  filter  is  established.  This  operation  may  be 
repeated  as  often  as  found  necessary.  While  I have  not  person- 
ally made  use  of  this  filter  for  purifying  the  sewage  from  isolated 
country  houses,  I understand  that  it  is,  or  has  been,  in  successful 
use  at  a countiy  house  at  Seabright,  New  Jersey,  and  elsewhere. 
Wherever  no  system  of  sewage  purification  by  application  to  land 
is  possible,  I believe  this  method  will  form  a successful  solution  of 
of  the  problem,  although  many  will  hesitate  to  adopt  it,  owing  to 
its  cost.  The  best  filtering  material  for  such  apparatus  is  saw-dust, 
which,  when  removed  and  dried,  can  be  readily  utilized  to  fire  up 
the  boilers  needed  for  the  sewage  pumps. 

8.  Sewage  from  isolated  country  houses  may  be  purified  on  the 
premises  by  chemical  treatment.  By  this  method  the  suspended, 
and  a part  of  the  dissolved  impurities,  are  precipitated  by  means  of 
chemicals.  Quite  a large  number  of  chemical  processes  have  been 
invented,  but  none  of  them  have  attained  any  very  extensive  use. 
One  of  the  most  common  processes  consists  in  the  addition  of  milk 
of  lime  to  sewage.  Much  more  effective  than  this  are  solutions  of 
sulphate  of  alumina,  or  of  perchloride  of  iron.  Such  chemical 
precipitation,  while  not  accomplishing  a very  thorough  purification 
removes  tlie  impurities  to  such  an  extent  as  to  permit  a discharge 
into  a tidal  river,  or  a large  stream.  Occasionally,  however,  as 
stated  above,  the  clarified  liquid  is  applied  to  land  for  further 
purification. 

In  selecting  a precipitant,  preference  should  be  given  to  one 
which  accomplishes  the  process  of  subsidence  with  rapidity ; at  the 
same  time  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  precipitant  used  should 
produce  a sludge  of  minimum  bulk  with  maximum  amount  of 
solid  impurities.  In  both  respects,  milk  of  lime  is  inferior  to  the 
other  chemicals  mentioned  above. 

A difficulty  adhering  to  all  chemical  precipitation  processes  is  the 
disposal  of  the  sewage  sludge.  It  usually  contains,  after  precipi- 
tation, from  90  to  95  per  cent,  of  water,  and  unless  the  latter  is 
removed  it  soon  decomposes  and  becomes  offensive.  It  has  been 


16— 


suggested  to  evaporate  this  water  by  artificial  heat,  but  such  a pro- 
cess, is  expensive.  Others  have  proposed  the  separation  of  the 
liquid  matter  from  the*  solid  in  centrifugal  machines.  In  some 
instances  sludge  is  pumped  directly  from  the  precipitation  tanks  to 
land,  wliere  it  is  left  exposed  to  the  air,  and  when  comparatively 
dry  is  dug  into  tiie  ground.  In  some  patented  processes,  such 
chemicals  are  added  as  enable  the  manufacture  of  brick  or  cement 
from  the  sludge.  More  recently,  powerful  filter-presses  have  been 
used,  which  offer  great  advantages.  By  means  of  these  the  sludge 
is  quickly  pressed  into  cakes,  which  may  be  sold  as  manure  to 
farmers,  and  not  being  bulky,  enables  a better  transportation  for 
long  distances. 

Chemical  treatment  must  sometime  be  adopted  where  land  is  not 
available  for  purification  purposes,  or  where  its  high  price  pre- 
cludes any  effort  to  obtain  an  area  sufficiently  large  for  irrigation. 
It  may,  at  times,  become  necessary  to  resort  to  it,  where  the  soil  is- 
underlaid  with  rocks.  Again,  chemical  precipitation  may  be  com- 
bined with  the  application  of  sewage  to  land,  in  which  case  a much 
smaller  irrigation  or  filtration  area  is  sufficient.  But  all  this  refers 
more  to  the  sewage  from  large  institutions,  oi’  from  villages  or 
towns. 

Chemical  treatment  is  not  well  adapted  to  single  or  isolated 
dwellings.  The  process  implies  the  construction  of  tanks,  the  pro- 
vision of  suitable  chemicals,  all  of  which  calls  for  considerable 
expense.  Apart  from  this  consideration,  such  a manipulation  of 
sewage  is  not  desirable  on  the  premises,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  dwell- 
ing houses. 

It  may  be  stated  in  general,  that  whatever  the  chemical  treat- 
ment may  be,  it  will  be  wise  not  to  have  too  much  faith  in  the 
realization  of  a large  commercial  profit  from  the  sewage  treatment. 
Far  better  to  make  the  ultimate  purification  of  the  sewage  the  chief 
end  in  view.  It  is  also  well  to  remember  that  in  certain  chemical 
processes  the  effiuent  water  is  of  such  a character  that,  if  dis- 
charged into  brooks  or  rivers,  it  may  kill  fish  and  cause  an  injury 
to  fish  culture.  Chloride  of  lime  is  particularly  objectionable. 
Sulphuric  and  hydro-chloric  acids  are  also  said  to  be  very  hurtful. 

9.  Wherever  a sufficient  area  of  land  is  available,  and  where 
the  layout  of  the  land  and  the  character  of  the  soil  are  favorable, 
sewage  may  be  disposed  of  and  purified  on  the  premises  by  apply- 
ing it  to  the  land.  Generally  speaking,  the  application  of  sewage 
to  land  forms  the  best  solution  of  the  problem  of  sewage  disposal. 


—17— 


Not  that  it  enables  us  to  derive  much  profit  from  its  utilization — 
this  should  always  be  a secondary  consideration,  in  the  case  of 
larger  institutions  or  towns  not  less  than  in  the  case  of  single 
houses — but  by  applying  sewage  to  land  it  is  always  possible  to 
effect  its  purification  to  such  an  extent  as  to  avoid  the  usual  fouling 
of  surface  or  subterranean  water-courses.  While  chemical  precipi- 
tation and  mechanical  filtration  may  be  considered  artificial  pro- 
cesses, the  purification  of  sewage  by  the  soil  is  a natural  process, 
completing  one  of  the  constant  rounds  or  circulations  going  on  in 
Nature.  The  water  on  the  globe  furnishes  an  example  of  such  a 
circulation  going  on  forever.  Arising  as  a vapor  from  the  ocean, 
and  from  large  exposed  surfaces  of  flowing  water,  it  is  carried 
along  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  atmosphere  by  currents  of  air,  and 
forms  clouds  , from  which  it  is  again  precipitated  upon  the  surface 
of  the  earth  in  the  form  of  rain,  snow,  hail  or  dew.  A part  of  this 
storm-water  is  immediately  evaporated  and  returns  to  the  clouds, 
another  part  flows  off  on  the  surface  forming  successfully  springs, 
brooks,  rivers,  streams — all  flowing  toward  the  great  ocean,  while 
a third  part  soaks  into  the  ground,  and  is  partially  absorbed  by 
vegetation,  and  partly  forms  underground  streams  of  water  with 
an  inclination  toward  some  stream,  or  else  forms  springs,  which 
finally  come  out  at  the  surface. 

Another  example  of  a constant  round  of  Nature  is  afforded  by 
the  circulation  going  on  between  animal  and  vegetable  life.  Plants 
are  nourished,  and  grow  upon  decomposed  animal  matter,  effecting 
a change  of  those  substances  which  might  become  dangerous  to 
animal  life,  into  harmless  food  substances  for  the  roots  of  plants. 
The  same  plants,  perhaps,  form  the  nourishment  for  man  and  ani- 
mals, and  are  again  discarded  to  feed  vegetation. 

The  whole  process  of  water  circulation  has  never  been  better 
described  than  in  the  words  of  Mr.  F.  O.  Ward,  at  the  General 
Congress  of  Hygiene,  at  Brussels,  in  1856.  These  words,  quoted 
by  Mr.  Edwin  Chadwick,  the  Nestor  of  sanitary  science  in  England, 
in  an  address  on  “Circulation  or  Stagnation,”  are  as  follows: 

“The  water  which  falls  on  the  hills  in  a state  of  purity  under- 
goes a natural  process  of  filtration  through  sand,  enters  the  rural 
collecting  pipes,  and  passing  through  the  aqueduct  to  the  metro- 
politan distribution  pipes,  finds  its  w’^ay  to  every  story  of  every 
house  in  the  town  ; whence  again,  after  having  supplied  the  wants 
of  the  inhabitants,  it  runs  off,  enriched  with  fertilizing  matter, 
which  it  carries  away  before  allowing  it  time  to  ferment.  This 
manure,  driven  along  irrigation  pipes,  is  deposited  in  the  soil, 
2 


—18— 


leaving  the  water  to  pass  into  drainage  pipes,  and  flow  on  to  the 
rivers.  The  rivers  conduct  it  to  the  ocean,  where  it  rises  as  vapor 
under  the  heat  of  the  sun,  to  redescend  as  rain  on  the  hills,  enter 
again  the  collection  pipes,  and  recommence  its  vast  and  useful 
course  of  circulation.” 

Let  us  return  now  to  the  consideration  of  the  application  of  sew- 
age from  isolated  country  houses  to  land.  The  conditions  of  suc- 
cessful application  are  a sufficiently  large  area  of  suitable,  absorb- 
ent well  aerated,  properly  prepared  and  thoroughly  underdrained 
soil.  I should,  perliaps,  add  to  these  a few  other  conditions,  namely, 
the  proper  and  judicious  management,  careful  and  equal  distribu- 
tion, and,  before  all,  the  hiterinittent  application  of  sewage  to  the 
soil,  which  latter  is  so  needed  to  insure  its  aeration. 

The  land  selected  for  the  purification  of  the  sewage  should  not 
be  located  too  near  a dwelling.  In  particular,  if  wells  are  used,  it 
should  be  kept  at  a safe  distance  from-  them,  the  exact  distance 
depending  not  so  much  on  the  configuration  or  slope  of  the  surface 
as  upon  the  inclination  of  the  under-ground  geological  formation 
and  strata. 

We  may  distinguish  several  systems,  namely,  broad  sewage 
irrigation,  intermittent  downward  filtration,  and  sub-surface  irriga- 
tion. The  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Metropolitan 
Sewage  Discharge,  published  in  1884,  defines  broad  irrigation  as 
‘‘‘the  distribution  of  sewage  over  a large  surface  of  ordinary  agri- 
cultural ground,  having  in  view  a maximum  growth  of  vegetation, 
consistent  with  due  purification,  for  the  amount  of  sewage  sup- 
plied.” The  same  report  speaks  of  intermittent  downward  filtra- 
tion as  “the  concentration  of  sewage  at  short  intervals  on  an  area 
of  especially  chosen  porous  ground,  as  small  as  will  absorb  and 
retain  it,  not  excluding  vegetation,  but  making  the  produce  of 
secondary  importance.”  In  the  first  system,  the  sewage  flows 
principally  over  the  land,  in  the  latter  system  it  passes  through  the 
land.  Sub-surface  irrigation  is  a modification  of  the  filtration 
system,  in  which  the  sewage  is  distributed  in  a network  of  tile 
pipes,  close  under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  whereby  all  offense 
to  sight  or  smell  is  at  once  overcome.  It  is  obvious  tliat  this  is  an 
important  consideration  wherever  sewage  irrigation  is  to  be 
practiced  close  to  a dwelling-house. 

Broad  irrigation  requires  very  large  areas  of  land.  The  land 
must  not  be  continuously  flooded,  so  that  in  order  to  manage  an 
irrigation  farm  successfully  it  is  at  least  advisable  to  have  pieces  of 
fallow  land,  and  to  distribute  the  sewage  on  different  portions  on 
alternating  days.  By  passing  sewage  through  a properly  prepared 


—19— 


■filtration  we  are  enabled  to  effect  the  purification  of  a much 
larger  volume,  provided  we  maintain  an  intermittent  discharge,  so 
€18  to  secure  thorough  aeration. 

In  all  methods  of  application  of  sewage  to  land,  it  is  advisable 
to  intercept  at  least  the  coarser  suspended  organic  matters  con- 
tained in  sewage,  which  should  be  dealt  with  separately.  The 
irrigation  field  must  in  all  cases  be  properly  and  thoroughly  under- 
drained. The  preparation  of  the  surface  of  the  land  should  be 
simple  and  inexpensive,  and  must  depend  somewhat  on  the  general 
topography  of  the  field,  as  well  as  upon  the  kind  of  vegetation 
Vv^hich  it  is  intended  to  raise  from  sewage.  It  is  important  that  the 
sewage  be  distributed  evenly  and  in  as  fresh  condition  as  possible. 
Much  the  best  plan  to  secure  an  intermittent  discharge  and  to  avoid 
an  irregular  and  trickling  flow,  is  to  collect  the  sewage  from  the 
house  in  a self-acting  flush-tank.  Wherever  possible  the  sewage 
should  be  conveyed  to  the  latter  by  gravitation,  and  the  location  of 
the  irrigation  field  should  be  selected  accordingly.  Occasionally, 
however,  pumping  becomes  a necessity,  and  this  may  be  accomp- 
lished either  by  some  form  of  steam  pump,  or  by  a gas-  or  hot-air 
engine,  or  by  a windmill. 

I shall,  hereafter,  dwell  more  at  length  upon  the  sub-surface 
irrigation  S3^stem,  and  shall  explain  some  of  its  details,  because  I 
regard  it  as  the  best  available  system  for  the  disposal  of  liquid  aud 
semi-liquid  wastes  of  isolated  country  houses.  Before  doing  so  it 
may  be  w’ell  to  sum  up  what  I have  said  about  the  methods  avail- 
able for  disposing  of  sewage  of  isolated  country  houses. 

Such  houses  as  are  not  in  reach  of  sewers  can  dispose  of  their 
liquid  sewage  in  some  cases  by  direct  discharge  into  a stream  (tak- 
ing this  word  in  its  widest  significance),  or  into  the  sea.  As  a rule, 
however,  it  is  absoluteh^  necessary,  and  vastly  better,  to  adopt 
some  system  of  purification  on  the  premises.  Of  systems  of  sew- 
age purification,  application  to  the  soil  is  preferable  to  mechanical 
filtration,  or  to  chemical  precipitation.  The  latter  methods  should 
only  be  resorted  to  where  no  land  suitable  for  disposal  is  obtain- 
able. Of  the  methods  of  applying  sewage  to  land,  broad  irriga- 
tion is  least  favorable,  as  it  requires  a large  area  of  land,  and  in 
cases  where  the  field  is  located  close  to  the  house,  it  becomes 
objectionable.  Intermittent  downward  filtration,  while  requiring 
a much  smaller  surface,  is  yet  open  to  the  second  objection  made 
to  surface  irrigation.  Far  preferable,  for  single  houses  and  isolated 
institutions,  is  the  sub-surface  irrigation  system.  Leaching  cess- 
pools are  absolutely  inadmissible,  and  the  same  is  generally  true 


—20— 


of  tight  cesspools  with  overflows  into  a ditch  or  water-course.  In 
a few  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  adopt  a perfectly  tight  cesspool 
without  overflow,  and  to  pump  the  liquid  out  at  frequent  intervals, 
distributing  it  on  the  land.  This  alternative  should  be  resorted  to 
only  where  all  other  methods  prove  objectionable  or  impracticable. 


In  the  following  I shall 
dwell  more  at  length  upon 
the  disposal  of  sewage  hy  swh. 
surface  irrigation^  for,  in  my 
judgment,  this  is  the  most 
available  system  for  the  dis- 
posal of  liquid  and  semi-liquid 
wastes  of  isolated  country 
houses.  The  system  has  long 
ago  attracted  public  attention,, 
and  has,  in  recent  years,  been 
taken  up  by  the  foremost  san- 
itary engineers,  for  more  than 
an 3^  other  method,  it  promises 
the  entirely  successful  solu- 
tion of  the  problem  of  sewage 
disposal  for  isolated  houses. 
It  certainl}^  recommends  it- 
self, owing  to  the  peculiar 
facilities  for  disposing  of  sew- 
age without  creating  an  offense 
to  sight  or  smell:  for  it  is  only 
too  well  known  that  open  or 
surface  irrigation  becomes,  in 
many  cases,  exceedingly  ob- 
jectionable in  close  conti- 
guity to  mansions  or  dwell- 
ings. 


The  origin  of  the  sub-surface 
irrigation  system  is  usually  at- 
tributed to  the  Rev.  Henry 


Moule,  Yicar  of  Gordington,the  inventor  of  the  earth-closet. 
He  looked  upon  it  as  the  best  solution  of  the  slop-water 
disposal  question  for  cottages  which  adopted  the  earth-closet 
system.  But  according  to  Mr.  Edwin  Chadwick,  sub-surface 
irrigation  had  previoush^  been  tried,  independent!}^  and  system- 
aticalty,  on  a large  scale,  by  M.  Charpentier,  a French  vine  grower, 


—21— 


near  Bordeaux.  Mr.  Chadwick  states  that  the  results  which  the 
latter  obtained  with  vines  and  fruits,  as  well  as  with  market-garden 
produce,  were  most  satisfactory.  The  system  would  probably 
never  have  grown  to  its  present  popularity  had  it  not  been  for  Mr. 
Rogers  Field,  Mem.  Inst,  C.  E.,  who,  recognizing  the  desirability 
of  intermittent  action,  invented  his  automatic  flush-tank,  which  he 
aj)plied  successfully  to  the  disposal  of  liquid  household  wastes. 
Ilis  first  experiments  were  made  at  some  laborers’  cottages,  belong- 
ing to  his  own  estate  at  Sheffleld,  in  Essex.  Since  then  the  system 
has  been  adapted  to  all  possible  conditions,  and  has  given  such  sat- 
isfaction that  it  is  now  considered  admirably  suited  to  isolated 
houses  not  in  reach  of  a sewer,  but  having  sufficient  porous  or  well 
drained  ground  about  them,  with  favorable  lay  of  the  land.  Col. 
Geo.  E.  Waring.  Jr.  was  the  first  to  try  the  system  in  this  country, 
about  fifteen  years  ago.  Finding  that  it  worked  satisfactorily  in  the 
<jase  of  his  own  residence  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  then  not  in  reach  of  a 
sewer,  he  adopted  it  afterward  with  success  for  the  disposal  of 
sewage  of  cottages  and  suburban  residences,  and  on  a larger  scale 
for  the  purification  of  sewage  at  the  women’s  reformatory  prison  at 
Sherburne,  Mass.,  the  Keystone  Hotel,  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.,  and  at 
Lenox,  Mass.,  for  the  sewage  of  the  whole  village.  For  a num- 
ber of  years  the  system  has  been  extensively  applied  by  many  sani- 
tary and  landscape  engineers,  and  by  a few  progressive  architects, 
for  the  disposal  of  sewage  from  isolated  country  houses  or  institu-  • 
tions  not  within  reach  of  sewers,  but  liberally  supplied  with  water 
and  plumbing  appliances. 

The  system  is  based  upon  the  well  known  fact  that  the  aerated 
layers  of  soil  next  to  the  srirface^  the  sub-surface  as  it  were,  possess 
in  a high  degree  the  power  of  destroying  organic  substances  buried 
in  them,  by  nitrification  and  oxidation,  aided  during  a part  of  the 
year  by  vegetation,  and  assisted  at  all  times  by  minute  organisms 
or  bacteria.  The  latter  play  an  important  part  in  the  round  of 
changes  in  Nature.  ‘‘They  are,”  says  Tyndall,  “by  no  means  purely 
useless  or  purely  mischievous  in  the  economy  of  Nature.  They  are 
only  noxious  when  out  of  their  proper  place.  They  exercise  a 
useful  and  valuahle  function  as  the  hurners  and  consumers  of  dead 
matter,  animal  and  vegetable,  reducing  such  matter  with  a rapidity 
otherwise  unattainable  to  innocent  carbonic  acid  and  water.  Fur- 
thermore, they  are  not  all  alike,  and  it  is  only  restricted  classes  of 
them  that  are  really  dangerous  to  man.  One  difference  in  their 
habits  is  worthy  of  special  reference  here.  Air,  or  rather  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  support  of 


—22— 


the  bacteria  of  putrefaction,  is,  according  to  Pasteur,  absolutely 
deadly  to  the  vibrios  which  provoke  butyric  acid  fermentation.” 

I lay  particular  stress  upon  the  importance  of  distributing  the 
sewage  close  to  the  surface  of  the  soil,  at  depth  not  exceeding  ten 
or  twelve  inches.  Aeration  is  a conditio  sine  qna  non  of  the  whole 
system.  At  greater  depths  oxidation  and  purification  become  very 
much  slower  until  they  cease  altogether.  The  sub-soil  is  not  able  to 
effect  a complete  purification  of  sewage,  as  the  oxidizing  infiuence 
of  the  atmosphere  does  not  so  freely  reach  it.  It  is  the  layer  of 
earth  next  to  the  surface,  the  sub-surface^  which  acts  on  the  sewage. 
Hence  the  name  of  the  system  is  derived,  and  it  is  an  error,  com- 
mitted quite  frequentl}^,  and  to  which  I have  more  than  once  called 
attention,  to  call  the  system  sub-soil”  irrigation. 

We  see,  then,  that  only  where  sewage  is  distributed  close  to  the 
surface,  where  sufficient  ox3'gen  attaches  to  the  particles  of  the 
soil,  are  the  organic  matters  in  it  taken  up  as  nourishment  by  the 
roots  of  plants,  and  reduced  or  destroyed  by  the  bacteria  in  the 
soil.  The  liquid  sewage,  freed  of  its  coarser  impurities,  soaks  away 
into  the  porous  ground,  and  thus  becomes  still  more  clarified  by 
filtration,  so  that  when  removed  by  deep  under-drains,  it  is  generally 
found  to  be  quite  clear,  colorless,  free  of  taste  or  smell.  By  arrang- 
ing an  intermittent  discharge,  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  are 
enabled  to  take  up  oxygen  during  intervals  between  discharges, 
and  to  prepare  for  the  next  volume  of  sewage,  while  the  ground  is 
prevented  from  becoming  saturated,  wet  and  swampy. 

There  is  a radical  difference  between  such  a system  and  a loose, 
or  leaching  cesspool.  With  the  latter  the  area  of  soil  used  for 
purification  is  quite  small  as  compared  with  the  former,  where  the 
surface  can  be  chosen  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  sewage  to  be 
disposed  of,  which  is  not  a feasible  thing  to  do  with  a cesspool. 
We  all  know  that  even  in  the  case  of  a leaching  cesspool,  newly 
built  and  first  put  to  use,  some  purification  of  the  sewage  which 
oozes  out  at  its  pores  is  accomplished  by  straining  and  filtration. 
After  some  use,  however,  its  pores  clog  up,  and  the  soil  around 
the  cesspool  becomes  saturated  with  sewage  matter,  undergoing, 
in  the  absence  of  ox3^gen,  a very  slow  process  of  decomposition. 
The  sewage  soaks  away  unpurified,  polluting  springs  and  wells, 
and  the  unwholesome  gases  generated  taint  the  ground-air,  and, 
being  given  off  at  the  surface,  frequently  enter  our  houses.  It  is 
for  these  reasons  that  all  sanitarians  look  upon  a leaching  cesspool 
as  a nuisance  and  a standing  danger  to  health. 


—23— 


Briefly  described,  the  sub- surface  irrigation  system  consists  of 
two  parts:  J^irst--An  absolutely  tight  receptacle,  or  sewage-tank 
for  liquid  household  wastes,  including  the  contents  of  water-closets. 
Second — A net  work  of  common  distribution  drain  tiles,  laid  a few 
inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  with  ope7i  joints^  so  as  to 
permit  the  liquid  to  ooze  out  at  numerous  points.  This  net  work 
of  pipes,  buried  in  the  ground,  constitute  the  irrigation  field.  (See 
Figs.  5 and  6.) 


As  stated  heretofore,  it 

is  an  important  condition  \ \ \ 'Ml  rill' t ' 

to  insure  the  successful  \ ^ ' 

working  of  the  system, 
that  the  discharge  of  sew- 
age from  the  sewage  tank 
to  the  irrigation  field  be 
intermittent^  and  that,  in- 
stead of  a constant,  drib- 
bling stream  from  the  tank 
there  be  a powerful  rush 
of  sewage  in  a large  vol- 
ume, so  as  to  secure  an 
even  distribution  and  the 
perfect  filling  up  of  all 
pipes.  It  is,  to  say  the 
least,  desirable  that  the 
discharge  should  not  occur 
more  frequently  than  once 
a day^  that  is,  every  twen- 
ty-four hours,  and  the  size 
of  the  tank  should  be  gov- 
erned thereby. 

The  soil  of  the  field 
should,  preferably,  be 
gravelly  and  porous.  All 
tight  clay  soils  and  ground 
liable  to  dampness,  should 
be  properly  under-drained 
by  deep  land  drains.  The 
sub-irrigation  field  should 
not  be  located  too  near  a Fig.o. 

house,  wherever  there  is  abundance  of  land  favorably  located,  per- 
mitting the  sewage  to  flow  away  by  gravity.  As  a matter  of 


—24— 


precaution,  it  is  well  that  some  attention  be  paid  in  locating  the 
irrigation  field,  to  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  although  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  a properly  working  irrigation  field  is  quite  inodor- 
ous. So  much  is  this  the  case  that  the  tiles  may  be,  and  in  practice 
often  are,  laid  under  the  well  kept  lawns  adjoining  summer  resi- 
dences, without  ever  causing  an  offense.  Another  precaution  to  be 
observed  where  the  water-supply  of  a country  house  is  derived 
from  wells  or  springs  is,  that  the  field  should  not  be  located  near 
them. 

The  preparation  of  the  sub-surface  of  the  field  is  accomplished 
in  the  following  manner:  Common,  unglazed  agricultural  tiles, 
two  inches  inside  diameter  and  one  foot  in  length,  are  laid  eight  or 
ten  inches  below  the  surface  on  continuous  boards,  or  better  in  gut- 
ters of  earthernware,  laid  accurately  in  the  trenches  at  the  uniform 
grade  required.  (See  Fig.  7.)  Should  the  tiles  ever  clog  up,  it 
thus  becomes  an  easy  task  to  take  them  up,  to 
clean  them  and  to  relay  them  in  the  gutters,  an 
operation  readily  performed  by  a common  lab- 
orer. It  is  quite  important  that  there  should  be 
between  the  tiles  at  each  joint,  a space  of  about 
one-quarter  inch  to  faciliate  the  oozing  out  of 
the  sewage.  Small  earthern  caps  about  three 
inches  long  are  placed  over  the  ends  of  tiles  at 
each  joint  to  protect  it  from  dirt  or  earth  falling 
from  above.  (See  Fig.  8. ) It  is  not  necessary 
to  give  the  absorption  tiles  a greater  fall  than 
about  two  or  three  inches  per  hundred  feet,  for 
if  laid  at  too  steep  a grade  the  sewage  would 
rush  to  the  lowest  level,  and  saturate  that  part 
of  the  irrigation  field.  It  should  be  noted  that 
much  of  the  success  of  the  system  depends  up- 
on the  accuracy  with  which  the  distribution  tiles 
are  laid.  They  should  branch  out  from  the 
bottom  of  the  main  canying  conduit,  and 
\ special  T and  Y branches  are  manufactured  for 

this  purpose.  (See  Fig.  9.)  The  main  drain 
at  least  two  feet  deep,  and  the  two-inch  branches 
should  be  cemented  until  they  strike  the  proper  depth  of  eight  or 
ten  inches.  The  main  drain  conducting  the  sewage  from  the  fiush- 
tank  to  the  irrigation  field  should  be  four  inches  in  diameter,  except 
in  the  case  of  large  institutions,  when  the  size  of  the  flush-tank 

often  requires 
a six-inch  main 

^ conduit.  It 
can  be  laid 

with  as  much  fall  as  the  layout  of  the  land  will  require,  but  when 


k 


Fig.  7. 

should  be  laid 


Fig.  8. 


—25— 


it  approaches  the  absorption  field,  its  fall  should  be  limited  to  four 
or  six  inches  in  one  hundred  feet,  to  prevent  the  sewage  from  run- 
ning to  the  lower  part  of  the  field,  overcharging  the  lower  lines  of 
drains.  The  distance  between  the  lines  should  average  about  five 
feet.  The  ramification  and  the  general  layers  of  the  lines  will 
depend  on  the  contour  lines  of  the  land.  In  the  case  of  level 
ground  the  lines  may  be  parallel  to  each  other. 


Fig.  9. 


The  number  of  feet  of  tiles  which  it  is 
necessary  to  lay  will  depend  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  sewage  delivered  each  day.  It  will 
vary,  moreover,  for  like  quantities  of  sewage, 
with  the  general  character  and  porosity  of  the 
soil  of  the  absorption  field.  Wherever  the 
soil  consists  of  a heavy  clay,  or  is  liable  to 
be  wet  or  swampy,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  thoroughly  under-drain  the  field  by  a com- 
plete system  of  agricultural  tiles,  laid  at  a 
a depth  of  from  four  to  five  feet,  removing 
and  discharging  the  purified  sewage  as  well 
as  any  excess  of  soil  moisture. 

The  fiush-tank  is  usually  built  of  hard- 
burned  brick,  laid  in  hydraulic  cement  mortar,  and  made  perfectly 
water  tight.  (See  Fig.  10.) 

An  important  and 
most  necessary  precau- 
tion to  prevent  the  clogg- 
ing of  the  siphon,  which 
empties  the  tank,  or  of 
the  distribution  tiles,  is 
to  build  in  connection 
with  the  flush-tank,  and 
between  the  house  and 
the  latter,  an  intercept- 
chamber  or  grease- trap, 
intended  to  intercept  all 
solids,  undissolved  paper 
and  fatty  waste  matters 
from  the  kitchen.  Such 
a chamber  is,  in  a cer- 
Fig.  10.  tain  sense,  a cesspool, 

altliough  it  differs  from  the  ordinary  objectionable  device  of  this 


EACHi  MANHOLE  TO  BE 
CL08E0IWITH  A TIGHT  IRON 
INSRECXION  COVER 


—26— 


kind  in  having  its  liquid  contents  frequently  changed,  and  in  being 
built  of  small  size.  Its  emptying  and  cleaning  must,  of  course, 
by  no  means  be  neglected.  Much  of  the  solid  matters  and  papers, 
etc.,  is  reduced  by  maceration  and  decomposition,  and  flows  dis- 
solved by  water  into  the  liquid  sewage  chamber.  The  overflow 
pipe  connecting  both  chambers  must  dip  well  below  the  surface  of 
the  water  level  in  the  first  chamber  to  prevent  scum  or  grease  from 
over-flowing  into  the  flush-tank.  The  flush-tank  proper  should, 
generally,  be  built  circular  in  shape,  and  of  a size  to  hold  one 
day’s  volume  of  sewage.  The  liquid  wastes  from  the  household 
are  retained  in  this  tank  until  it  is  filled,  when  its  whole  contents 
are  suddenly  delivered  into  the  main  drain,  and  thence  into  the 
irrigation  tiles,  whereby  all  the  rows  of  tiles  are  uniformly  charged, 
and  the  whole  of  the  absorption  field  is  brought  into  use  each  time 
the  tank  is  emptied.  If  the  sewage  is  discharged  suddenly  in  a 
large  volume,  it  oozes  out,  not  only  at  the  bottom,  but  also  at  the 
sides  and  top  of  each  joint.  The  purification  begins  at  once.  The 
clarified  liquid  soaks  into  the  ground,  the  impurities  being  retained 
by  the  earth,  where  they  are  quickly  destroyed.  Air  enters  the 
pores  of  the  soil  and  prepares  it  for  future  use,  while  the  tank  is 
gradually  filling  for  the  next  discharge. 

The  interval  required  between  two  consecutive  discharges,  the 
exact  proportion  between  capacity  of  tank  and  size  of  house, 
between  size  of  tank  and  number  of  feet  of  drain  tiles,  etc.,  are 
details  requiring  judgment,  skill  and  experience,  which  must  be 
left  to  be  determined  in  each  individual  case  separately. 

To  discharge  the  flush-tank,  recourse  may  be  had  to  various 
mechanical  appliances.  The  simplest  arrangement,  but  one  that 
requires  daily  attendance  and  some  manual  labor,  is  to  place  a gate- 
valve  at  the  outlet  pipe  leading  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank,  which 
valve  is  opened  or  closed  by  hand  whenever  the  tank  becomes 
filled.  This  arrangement  may  answer  for  smaller  country  houses, 
in  which  the  amount  of  water  used  is  limited,  being  usually 
pumped  into  the  house  tank  by  hand.  An  automatic  device  is 
preferable  in  many  respects.  This  may  be  either  a tumbler  or 
tilting  tank,  or  one  of  the  several  siphon  devices  now  in  the  market. 
I have,  so  far,  found  none  better  nor  cheaper  than  the  annular 
siphon,  as  devised  by  Mr.  Kogers  Field,  C.  E.  If  space  would 
permit,  I should  illustrate  and  describe  the  manner  in  which  1 
usually  arrange  it,  but  this  is  not  possible,  and  I must  refer  my 
readers  to  my  illustrated  book,  ‘‘The  Disposal  of  Household 
Wastes.” 


—27— 


My  description  of  the  system  of  sewage  disposal  by  sub-surface 
irrigation  is,  I trust,  sufficiently  definite  to  give  a correct  general 
idea  of  it.  Having  spoken  so  much  in  its  favor,  it  is  but  proper 
that  I should  notice  and  mention  the  objections,  which  are  at  times, 
brought  forward  both  by  professionals  and  by  laymen  against  the 
system. 

1.  It  is  sometimes  feared  that  the  land  into  which  sewage  is 
continually  poured,  will,  after  some  years,  become  saturated  with 
sewage,  its  surface  wet  or  swampy,  and  the  whole  of  the  irrigation 
field  a large  cesspool,  spread  out  latterally  instead  of  downward. 
There  is,  however,  absolutely  no  reason  for  apprehending  such 
trouble.  Wherever  the  soil  is  not  naturally  loose  and  porous, 
vmder-drainage  is  essential  and  must  be  provided  for.  If  properly 
carried  out,  all  superfiuous  moisture  in  the  ground  will  be  removed. 
Aeration  is  another  essential  condition,  and  wherever  it  is  neglected 
the  soil  may  become  saturated  with  sewage  matters.  Finally,  inter- 
mittency  of  discharge  is  required,  with  intervals  of  at  least  twenty- 
four  hours  between  consecutive  emptyings  of  the  fiush-tank.  Under- 
drainage  of  the  soil  and  intermittent  action  of  the  fiush-tank  secure 
the  much  desired  aeration  of  the  sub-surface.  This  secured,  oxida- 
tion and  nitrification,  and  the  destruction  of  the  organic  particles 
attaching  to  the  earth  will  follow  with  regularity. 

2.  Much  apprehension  is  often  felt  lest  such  a system  will  not 
work  properly  in  winter  time,  and  fear  is  expressed  about  the 
freezing  up  of  the  ground  about  the  absorption  tiles.  Experience 
with  the  system  in  the  coldest  parts  of  the  New  England  States  has 
fully  removed  any  doubts  on  this  point.  Where  the  system  has 
been  in  continuous  use.  Summer  and  Winter,  it  is  found  by  practical 
experience  that  the  warmth  of  the  sewage  is  sufficient  to  keep  the 
ground  at  the  disposal-field  from  freezing. 

3.  It  is  often  objected  that  the  necessary  intercepting  chamber 
for  solids  is  in  reality  a cesspool.  This  is  true  to  some  extent; 
nevertheless,  I always  advise  to  build  this  chamber  in  connection 
with  the  fiush-tank,  but  I use  the  utmost  precaution  in  its  construc- 
tion to  make  it  perfectly  tight.  As  regards  this  intercepting  cham- 
ber, it  should  be  remembered  that  the  liquid  sewage  in  it  is  con- 
stantly changed,  for  a large  volume  of  water  passes  through  it 
every  day.  Although  the  chamber  retains  organic  waste  matter 
partially  putrefied,  the  amount  can  not  be  compared  with  that  in  a 
cesspool.  Some  of  the  solid  matter  is  undoubtedly  reduced  by 
maceration,  and  being  dissolved  passes  into  the  liquid  chamber. 


-28- 


from  where  it  is  discharged  into  the  absorption  drains,  to  be  finaLy 
oxidized  and  rendered  innocuous.  By  cleaning  the  intercepting 
chamber  once  a month,  the  amount  of  solid  putrid  matter  may  be 
kept  down  to  a minimum;  consequently  there  will  be  little  if  any 
exhalation  of  gases  of  putrefaction,  and  inasmuch  as  the  water 
level  remains  constant — the  intercepting  chamber  being  always 
filled  to  the  overfiow  level — gases  are  not  forced  out  as  in  the  case 
of  ordinary  cesspools.  By  means  of  proper  ventilation  the  inter- 
cepting chamber  may  be  kept  quite  free  from  offense. 

Perhaps  I should  mention  here  that  owing  to  these  objections 
attempts  have  repeatedly  been  made  to  do  away  with  the  intercept- 
ing chamber.  But  in  cases  where  water-closets  are  used  and  their 
contents  discharged  into  the  tank,  it  becomes  imperative  to  prevent 
the  solid  portions  of  the  sewage  from  clogging  the  tiles,  and  the 
siphon  which  discharges  the  flush-tank. 

I well  remember  an  attempt  made  some  years  ago  to  do  entirely 
without  intercepting  chamber  by  simply  surrounding  the  siphon 
(a  Field  annular  siphon)  with  a double  cylindrical  wire  screen  of 
both  coarse  and  fine  mesh.  In  less  than  six  months  the  tiles  were 
entirely  choked.  The  only  alternative  would  seem  to  be  to  strain 
the  solids. 

English  sanitary  engineers,  among  them  such  well  known  author- 
ities as  Mr.  Rogers  Field  and  Mr.  Wm.  Eassie,  prefer  a straining 
chamber.  To  quote  Mr.  Field:  ‘^The  distinguishing  feature  of 
this  arrangement  is  that  there  is  no  tank  or  depression  for  the  sew- 
age to  collect  in,  but  that  the  bottom  of  the  chamber  is  on  the  same 
level  as  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  so  that  liquid  sewage  passes 
through  the  chamber  without  any  obstruction.  The  interception 
of  the  solids  is  effected  by  two  strainers,  which  consist  of  small 
iron  rods  fixed  in  an  iron  frame  and  so  arranged  as  to  be  movable. 
The  bottom  of  the  chamber  is  constructed  of  concrete,  smoothly 
cemented  and  rounded,  so  as  to  form  a sort  of  a channel  for  the 
passage  of  the  liquid,  and  to  enable  the  solids  to  be  more  readily 
cleaned  out.  This  bottom  also  has  a rapid  fall  from  the  inlet  to 
the  outlet,  which  still  further  facilitates  the  rapid  passage  of  the 
liquid.  The  sides  are  usually  formed  of  brickwork,  and  the  hole 
is  covered  with  a light  wooden  lid,  opening  on  a hinge.”  With 
such  an  arrangement  a man  can  easily  remove  the  solids  by  scrap- 
ing them  up  by  means  of  a hoe  over  the  edge  and  mixing  them 
with  dry  earth.  To  prevent  such  a chamber  from  becoming  of- 
fensive solids  should  be  removed  daily. 


—29  - 


A different  arrangement  from  the  above,  which  has  also  been 
repeatedly  suggested,  is  that  of  having  in  a straining  chamber  a 
perforated  pail  or  movable  iron  basket,  which  intercepts  all  the 
solids  and  which  must  be  emptied  and  cleaned  every  day. 

Of  the  two  devices,  the  plain  strainer  appears  to  me  to  be  far 
preferable.  Personally,  I have  not  yet  tried  either  of  the  arrange- 
ments described.  I should  be  willing  to  substitute  the  straining 
chamber  for  the  intercepting  chamber  if  I could  rely  explicitly 
upon  daily  removal.*  The  trouble  involved  is  not  large,  it  is  true, 
but  servants  are  proverbially  neglectful,  and  the  arrangement  sug- 
gested certainly  robs  the  system  of  one  of  its  best  features,  namely, 
that  of  being  automatic.  If  daily  attendances  is  required,  it  might 
be  just  as  well  to  require  the  help  to  empty  the  sewage  tank  daily 
by  opening  a gate-valve,  and  thus  do  away  with  every  kind  of 
automatic  siphon  or  other  device,  while  retaining  the  features  of 
intermittent  discharge,  and  of  a discharge  of  a large  volume 
suddenly  distributed  over  the  whole  of  the  irrigation  field. 

I.  Owners  of  country  residences  find  an  objection  to  the  system 
in  the  necessity  of  frequent  emptying  of  the  intercepting  chamber 
just  referred  to,  which,  they  claim,  causes  more  ^or  less  of  a nuis- 
ance. As  an  answer  to  this  objection,  I would  say  that  of  the  two 
evils  of  cleaning  out  a large  ordinary  open  cesspool  and  the  com- 
paratively speaking  small  intercepting  chamber,  the  latter  is  far 
preferable.  But  in  doing  so  I probably  overlook  the  fact  that  the 
same  people  who  raise  such  an  objection  would  probably  never  see 
to  it  that  their  large  cesspool  is  cleaned,  paying  no  attention  to  it  as 
long  as  the  sewage  runs  off,  no  matter  where  to. 

5.  It  is  sometimes  objected  that  the  tiles  will  choke,  and  must 
be  taken  up  and  relaid.  I can  not  deny  the  possibility  of  such  an 
occurrence,  although  this  may  only  become  necessary  about  every 
three  years  on  the  average.  They  will  choke  sooner  if  they  lack 
the  cleansing  effect  of  a fiush  delivered  at  intervals  from  the 
sewage  tank.  Even  supposing  for  a moment  that  the  tiles  would 
have  to  be  cleaned  and  relaid  every  year,  how  little  amount  of 
labor,  trouble  and  expense  is  involved  in  doing  so,  owing  to  their 
being  laid  in  permanent  gutters  and  close  to  the  surface.  Compare 
this  with  the  trouble  and  annoyance  of  having  to  empty  and  clean 
a disgusting  overfiowing  cesspool. 

*Note.— Since  writing  the  above  the  author  has  constructed  such  a straining  cham- 
ber as  is  described  in  the  preceding  pages  in  connectiou  with  a 30,600-gallon  flush-tank 
for  sewage  disposal  at  the  State  Homeopathic  Asylum  for  the  Insane,  at  Middletown, 
Orange  county.  New  York. 


—30— 


6.  The  system  is  objected  to  because  the  ground  where  tlie  tiles 
are  buried  can  not  be  plowed,  nor  can  heavy  wagons  drive  over  it 
without  risk  of  breaking  or  displacing  the  pipes.  This  objection 
can  not  be  denied,  but  it  is  a slight  one,  if  one  at  all. 

7.  Many  people  object  to  the  cost  of  the  automatic  siphon. 
However  expensive  this  may  be,  it  can  not  be  considered  a valid 
and  sound  objection  against  the  system.  As  a matter  of  fact,  the 
annular  siphon,  at  least  in  the  case  of  isolated  suburban  and 
country  houses,  does’not  cost  very  much.  But,  where  this  expense 
is  objected  to,  the  mistake  should  not  be  made  of  providing  only 
one  large  overflow  pipe  from  the  liquid  sewage-tank,  from  which  a 
constant  small  stream  dribbles  toward  the  irrigation  field.  This  is 
a very  imperfect  and  faulty  arrangement.  Only  a short  length  of 
the  tiles  would  receive  an  almost  constant  trickling  flow  of  sewage, 
saturating  the  ground  around  it  to  the  surface  and  keeping  it  in  an 
unwholesome  condition.  Moreover,  the  tiles  would  rapidly  choke 
up  with  such  an  arrangement.  Aeration,  intermittent  faction,  oxi- 
dation, powerful  flushing,  the  uniform  and  entire  filling  of  the  tiles 
— all  these  conditions  essential  to  the  success  of  the  system  would 
be  absent. 

As  indicated  heretofore,  a stop-valve  in  the  outlet  pipe,  worked 
by  hand,  may. take  the  place  of  an  automatic  siphon.  The  only 
other  admissible  arrangement,  and  one  which  I have  adopted  with 
perfect  success  for  smaller  country  houses,  where  the  owners 
objected  to  the  cost  of  an  automatic  flush-tank,  is  a sewage  tank 
provided  with  a large  number  of  overflow  pipes,  all  placed  exactly 
at  the  same  level  in  the  tank — not  a very  easy  thing  to  do,  by  the 
way — and  all  discharging  simultaneously  equal  or  nearly  equal 
portions  of  the  sewage  into  the  various  lines  of  absorption  drains, 
thus  securing  a better  distribution  of  the  sewage.  In  this  arrange- 
ment the  tiles  are  likely  to  choke  sooner  than  in  the  system  with 
intermittent  flush-tank,  since  they  lack  the  cleansing  effect  of  a 
sudden  rush  of  water  from  the  tank. 

8.  Another  objection  is  the  cost  of  the  system.  The  first 
expense  is,  of  course,  more  than  that  for  a cesspool  of  moderate 
dimensions,  but  the  frequent  recurring  expense  of  cleaning  and 
emptying  the  latter  soon  renders  the  sub-surface  irrigation  system 
cheaper  than  the  ordinary  cesspool.  For  a small  country  house  its 
whole  expense  should  not  exceed  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars, 
and  for  a large  country  residence  the  system  ought  not  to  cost  more 
than  five  hundred  dollars,  which  prices  include  the  royalty  on  some 
of  the  better  class  of  patented  automatic  flush-tanks. 


—31— 


9.  It  is  sometimes  stated  that  the  sub-surface  irrigation  system 
is  impracticable  in  the  case  of  level  ground,  or  where  the  lawn 
rises  at  the  rear  of  the  house,  or  where  the  main  soil-pipe  leaves 
the  house  at  a depth  below  the  cellar  floor.  To  this  I add  that 
some  concessions  must,  under  such  circumstances,  be  made.  For 
instance,  in  places  where  the  available  fall  from  the  house  to  the 
irrigation  fleld  is  slight,  no  plumbing  fixtures  should  be  placed  in 
the  basement,  and  the  soil-pipe  should  leave  the  house  as  near  the 
surface  as  practicable.  In  some  cases  it  may  even  become  neces- 
sary to  build  the  flush-tank  in  embankment,  hiding  it  in  a sort  of 
artificial  terrace  at  the  side  of  the  house.  By  making  the  tank  of  a 
shallow  depth  it  is  usually  possible  to  effect  a suitable  arrangement. 
In  extreme  cases  it  may  become  necessary  to  lift  Hie  sewage  after 
straining,  and  this  may  be  accomplished  by  a variety  of  mechan- 
ical devices.  Where  a small  air  compressor  may  be  operated  in 
the  cellar  of  the  house,  Shone’s  sewage  ejector  appears  to  offer 
a simple  solution  of  the  problem.  Where  steam  is  available,  a 
pulsometer  pump  could  be  used  for  lifting  the  sewage.  If  gas  is 
laid  into  the  house,  or  a gasoline  gas-j,nachine  is  in  operation,  a 
gas-engine  or  hot-air  engine  may  prove  economical.  Finally,  the 
motive  power  of  the  wind  may  be  used  for  such  purposes,  by  erect- 
ing a windmill  with  suitable  pumping  apparatus.  Whatever  the 
special  difficulties  may  be  in  each  case,  they  can  usually  be  over- 
come at  a slight  sacrifice.  Certainly  they  should  not  be  considered 
objections  to  the  system  as  such. 

10.  The  objection  that  the  sub- surface  irrigation  system  poisons 
wells  may  be  removed  by  simply  locating  the  field  away  from 
wells,  or  where  it  must  necessarily  be  close  to  a house,  by  abolish- 
ing wells,  and  depending  on  rain-water  collected  in  tight  under- 
ground cisterns,  as  a source  of  water-supply. 

11.  Some  think  that  it  is  impossible  to  purify  sewage  by  turn- 
ing it  into  agricultural  drains  located  at  a depth  below  the  roots  of 
the  plants.  It  is  hardly  worth  while  to  consider  this  objection,  as 
many  years  of  successful  working  of  the  system  seem  to  amply  con- 
tradict it. 

12.  The  system  has  received  condemnation  because  ‘‘sub- 
irrigation is  a process  faulty  in  principle,  as  it  feeds  vegetation  by 
the  upward  rising  of  the  moisture,  accompanied  by  evaporation, 
with  all  the  chilling  Influences  which  are  so  injurious  to  vegetation 
as  well  as  to  hnman  beings.”  I can  only  answer  that,  so  far  as  my 
personal  observation  goes,  practically  no  harm  has  ever  been  done 


3 0112  059068624 


—32— 

to  vegetation ; on  the  contrary  it  stimulates  the  growth  of  grass,  of 
shrubbery,  and  of  fruit  trees,  which  statement,  I am  confident,  is 
borne  out  by  the  experience  of  other  sanitary  engineers. 

13.  Where  the  irrigation  field  is  under-drained  it  frequently 
happens  that  at  first  the  sewage  leaks  away  too  quickly,  and  with- 
out being  purified,  at  the  points  where  the  distribution  tiles  crosg 
the  lines  of  agricultural  tiles.  This  can  be  remedied  after  a while, 
when  the  earth 'in  the  deep  trenches  for  the  land  tiles  settles  down 
and  solidifies. 

This,  I believe,  comprises  all  the  criticisms  raised  against  the 
sub-surface  irrigation  system.  While  I do  not  wish  to  be  under- 
stood as  claiming  this  method  of  sewage  disposal  as  a panacea  for 
all  thj  evils  iwcident  to  country  house  drainage,  I hold  that  the 
system  is  an  excellent  one  wherever  suitable  land,  of  suitable  char- 
acter and  of  sufficient  area,  properly  located,  may  be  obtained. 
For  a more  detailed  discussion  of  the  whole  subject  I may  be  per- 
mitted to  refer  to  a small  volume,  recently  issued,  entitled  ‘‘The 
Disposal  of  Household  Wastes.”  


=»The  Disposal  of  Household  Wastes,  by  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard,  C.  E.,  New  York;  D.  Van. 
Nostraiid  Co.,  New  York,  1890.  Price  50  cents. 


